The Pre-Socratics
Cosmologists (also known as 'Materialists') |
| What is the original substance? |
| What is the relation between the One and the Many? |
| moved from the general to particulars |
| objective truth about the cosmos |
| Speculations of the cosmologists were mutually exclusive |
| Thales: the cosmos developed out of water |
| Heraclitus: The cosmos developed out of fire |
| Anaximenes: The cosmos developed out of air |
| Lack of final conclusions |
| lead to a shift of emphasis from object to subject |
| from cosmos to man himself |
| Focused on man, civilization and culture |
| justice varies from one culture to the next |
| there are many different kinds of virtue |
| moved from particulars to the general |
| practical knowledge about living |
| philosophy of mythology and religion |
| 1. favored conception of 'natural law' |
| 2. broadened outlook of ordinary Greek citizens |
| 3. were an educative force |
| 1. taught rhetorical manipulation |
| 2. were sceptical of prevailing culture and beliefs |
| but presented nothing new to replace them |
| 3. unlike older philosophers, took payment |
Socrates and Plato
Socrates (born c 470 BCE) |
| constitution and appearance |
| only told him what not to do |
| i.e., do not get involved in politics |
| served one term on Council of 500 |
| began by studying cosmologists |
| read all the books of Anaxagoras |
| found their arguments unconvincing |
| and turned to moral and ethical philosophy |
| philosophy as thought and conversation |
| turned away from politics, disillusioned with: |
| 1. the oligarchy of 404-3 |
| his dialogues are both philosophy and literature |
| Founded the Academy, 388 BCE (lasted until 6th c CE) |
| First European university: |
| Aristotle one of his leading students |
| How much is Socrates, how much is Plato? |
| Early dialogues more 'Socratic' |
| Dialogues which present the 'Forms' are Platonic |
| Such dialogues build upon Socrates' thought |
| Dramatic prologue to the Apology |
| Socrates' search for universal definitions |
| contrasts with the relativism of the Sophists |
| Like most of the early dialogues, this one ends without reaching a definition |
| yet evidence of the Apology suggests that Socrates already had a definition |
| note that Euthyphro agrees that piety is a kind of service of the gods (13d) |
Historical background for the prosecution of Socrates: |
| 1. from Delian League to Athenian Empire |
| Aegean an Athenian "lake" |
| 2. a defeated and reduced Athens |
| rely on city walls and raid Spartan allies |
| attempt to conquer nearby poleis |
| prosecution of Alcibiades |
| Revolt of allies, aided by Persia |
| Spartans cut off Athenian food supply |
| Unconditional surrender, 404 |
| A brief period of aristocratic oligarchy |
| some oligarchs had ties to Socrates |
| 3. a wide-spread suspicion of sophists and other philosophers |
| prosecution of Anaxagoras c. 450 BCE |
| wide-spread feeling that philosphers could make "the worse argument appear stronger" |
| A good example of an Athenian court |
| both a civil and a criminal case |
| Nature of Socrates' defense |
| Delphic oracle: 'No man is wiser than Socrates.' (21a) |
| may have prompted him to become a street philosopher |
| concluded that his wisdom equals a knowledge of his limits |
| Socrates as 'gadfly' (30e) |
| claims he has never been a teacher (33a) |
| Sought to stimulate Athenians into caring for wisdom |
| "Wealth does not bring about excellence, but excellence makes wealth and everything else good for men, both individually and collectively." (30b) |
| "Do not care for the city's posessions more than the city itself!" (36c) |
| This attitude was connected to his avoidance of politics. |
| tried to avoid opposing people and their interests directly |
| claims his service to the god is the greatest blessing the city possesses (30a) |
| implies a definition of piety: |
| Piety is doing god's work to benefit people. |
| "The unexamined life is not worth living!" (38a) |
| It is better to suffer an injustice than to act unjustly. |
| Presents Socrates' reasons for abiding by the verdict of the court |
| his devotion to the polis |
| his concern for consistency of thought and action |
| "The most important thing is not life, but the good life" (48b) |
| the responsibilities of a citizen |
| escaping would be impious |
| places polis above oikos and above self |
| Rejects retaliation and revenge |
| most Greeks equated justice with retaliation |
| debate over the fate of Mytilene in 427 BCE |
| Aristotle (Rhet. 1367a19-20): It is noble to avenge oneself on one's enemies and not to come to terms with them: for retaliation is just and the just is noble . . . |
| 1. One must never do wrong. |
| 2. Therefore, we should never wrong someone who wronged us. |
| 3. We should never injure anyone. |
| 4. If we are injured we should never inflict an injury in return. |
| 5. Injuring people is no different from wrongdoing. |
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